『壹』 古城这两个字的英文,简短一点的
古城这两个字的英文
短一点： Old City/Town
文学一点：Ancient City/Town
『贰』 英国文学论文
The term English literature refers to literature written in the English language, including literature composed in English by writers not necessarily from England; Joseph Conrad was Polish, Robert Burns was Scottish, James Joyce was Irish, Dylan Thomas was Welsh, Edgar Allan Poe was American, Salman Rushdie is Indian, V.S. Naipaul was born in Trinidad, Vladimir Nabokov was Russian. In other words, English literature is as diverse as the varieties and dialects of English spoken around the world. In academia, the term often labels departments and programmes practising English studies in secondary and tertiary ecational systems. Despite the variety of authors of English literature, the works of William Shakespeare remain paramount throughout the English-speaking world.
This article primarily deals with literature from Britain written in English. For literature from specific English-speaking regions, consult the see also section at the bottom of the page.
Contents [hide]
1 Old English
2 Renaissance literature
3 Early Modern period
3.1 Elizabethan Era
3.2 Jacobean literature
3.3 Caroline and Cromwellian literature
3.4 Restoration literature
3.5 Augustan literature
4 18th century
5 Romanticism
6 Victorian literature
7 Modernism
8 Post-modern literature
9 Views of English literature
10 See also
11 External links
Old English
Main article: Anglo-Saxon literature
The first works in English, written in Old English, appeared in the early Middle Ages (the oldest surviving text is Cædmon's Hymn). The oral tradition was very strong in early British culture and most literary works were written to be performed. Epic poems were thus very popular and many, including Beowulf, have survived to the present day in the rich corpus of Anglo-Saxon literature that closely resemble today's Norwegian or, better yet, Icelandic. Much Anglo-Saxon verse in the extant manuscripts is probably a "milder" adaptation of the earlier Viking and German war poems from the continent. When such poetry was brought to England it was still being handed down orally from one generation to another, and the constant presence of alliterative verse, or consonant rhyme (today's newspaper headlines and marketing abundantly use this technique such as in Big is Better) helped the Anglo-Saxon peoples remember it. Such rhyme is a feature of Germanic languages and is opposed to vocalic or end-rhyme of Romance languages. But the first written literature dates to the early Christian monasteries founded by St. Augustine of Canterbury and his disciples and it is reasonable to believe that it was somehow adapted to suit to needs of Christian readers. Even without their crudest lines, Viking war poems still smell of blood feuds and their consonant rhymes sound like the smashing of swords under the gloomy northern sky: there is always a sense of imminent danger in the narratives. Sooner or later, all things must come to an end, as Beowulf eventually dies at the hands of the monsters he spends the tale fighting. The feelings of Beowulf that nothing lasts, that youth and joy will turn to death and sorrow entered Christianity and were to dominate the future landscape of English fiction.
Renaissance literature
Main article: English Renaissance
Following the introction of a printing press into England by William Caxton in 1476, vernacular literature flourished. The Reformation inspired the proction of vernacular liturgy which led to the Book of Common Prayer, a lasting influence on literary English language. The poetry, drama, and prose proced under both Queen Elizabeth I and King James I constitute what is today labelled as Early modern (or Renaissance).
Early Modern period
Further information: Early Modern English and Early Modern Britain
Elizabethan Era
Main article: Elizabethan literature
The Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in the field of drama. The Italian Renaissance had rediscovered the ancient Greek and Roman theatre, and this was instrumental in the development of the new drama, which was then beginning to evolve apart from the old mystery and miracle plays of the Middle Ages. The Italians were particularly inspired by Seneca (a major tragic playwright and philosopher, the tutor of Nero) and Plautus (its comic cliché, especially that of the boasting soldier had a powerful influence on the Renaissance and after). However, the Italian tragedies embraced a principle contrary to Seneca's ethics: showing blood and violence on the stage. In Seneca's plays such scenes were only acted by the characters. But the English playwrights were intrigued by Italian model: a conspicuous community of Italian actors had settled in London and Giovanni Florio had brought much of the Italian language and culture to England. It is also true that the Elizabethan Era was a very violent age and that the high incidence of political assassinations in Renaissance Italy (embodied by Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince) did little to calm fears of popish plots. As a result, representing that kind of violence on the stage was probably more cathartic for the Elizabethan spectator. Following earlier Elizabethan plays such as Gorboc by Sackville & Norton and The Spanish Tragedy by Kyd that was to provide much material for Hamlet, William Shakespeare stands out in this period as a poet and playwright as yet unsurpassed. Shakespeare was not a man of letters by profession, and probably had only some grammar school ecation. He was neither a lawyer, nor an aristocrat as the "university wits" that had monopolised the English stage when he started writing. But he was very gifted and incredibly versatile, and he surpassed "professionals" as Robert Greene who mocked this "shake-scene" of low origins. Though most dramas met with great success, it is in his later years (marked by the early reign of James I) that he wrote what have been considered his greatest plays: Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra, and The Tempest, a tragicomedy that inscribes within the main drama a brilliant pageant to the new king. This 'play within a play' takes the form of a masque, an interlude with music and dance coloured by the novel special effects of the new indoor theatres. Critics have shown that this masterpiece, which can be considered a dramatic work in its own right, was written for James's court, if not for the monarch himself. The magic arts of Prospero, on which depend the outcome of the plot, hint at the fine relationship between art and nature in poetry. Significantly for those times (the arrival of the first colonists in America), The Tempest is (though not apparently) set on a Bermudan island, as research on the Bermuda Pamphlets (1609) has shown, linking Shakespeare to the Virginia Company itself. The "News from the New World", as Frank Kermode points out, were already out and Shakespeare's interest in this respect is remarkable. Shakespeare also popularized the English sonnet which made significant changes to Petrarch's model.
The sonnet was introced into English by Thomas Wyatt in the early 16th century. Poems intended to be set to music as songs, such as by Thomas Campion, became popular as printed literature was disseminated more widely in households. See English Madrigal School. Other important figures in Elizabethan theatre include Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Dekker, John Fletcher and Francis Beaumont. Had Marlowe (1564-1593) not been stabbed at twenty-nine in a tavern brawl, says Anthony Burgess, he might have rivalled, if not equalled Shakespeare himself for his poetic gifts. Remarkably, he was born only a few weeks before Shakespeare and must have known him well. Marlowe's subject matter, though, is different: it focuses more on the moral drama of the renaissance man than any other thing. Marlowe was fascinated and terrified by the new frontiers opened by modern science. Drawing on German lore, he introced Dr. Faustus to England, a scientist and magician who is obsessed by the thirst of knowledge and the desire to push man's technological power to its limits. He acquires supernatural gifts that even allow him to go back in time and wed Helen of Troy, but at the end of his twenty-four years' covenant with the devil he has to surrender his soul to him. His dark heroes may have something of Marlowe himself, whose untimely death remains a mystery. He was known for being an atheist, leading a lawless life, keeping many mistresses, consorting with ruffians: living the 'high life' of London's underworld. But many suspect that this might have been a cover-up for his activities as a secret agent for Elizabeth I, hinting that the 'accidental stabbing' might have been a premeditated assassination by the enemies of The Crown. Beaumont and Fletcher are less-known, but it is almost sure that they helped Shakespeare write some of his best dramas, and were quite popular at the time. It is also at this time that the city comedy genre develops. In the later 16th century English poetry was characterised by elaboration of language and extensive allusion to classical myths. The most important poets of this era include Edmund Spenser and Sir Philip Sidney. Elizabeth herself, a proct of Renaissance humanism, proced occasional poems such as On Monsieur’s Departure.
Canons of Renaissance poetry
Jacobean literature
After Shakespeare's death, the poet and dramatist Ben Jonson was the leading literary figure of the Jacobean era (The reign of James I). However, Jonson's aesthetics hark back to the Middle Ages rather than to the Tudor Era: his characters embody the theory of humours. According to this contemporary medical theory, behavioral differences result from a prevalence of one of the body's four "humours" (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) over the other three; these humours correspond with the four elements of the universe: air, water, fire, and earth. This leads Jonson to exemplify such differences to the point of creating types, or clichés.
Jonson is a master of style, and a brilliant satirist. His Volpone shows how a group of scammers are fooled by a top con-artist, vice being punished by vice, virtue meting out its reward.
Others who followed Jonson's style include Beaumont and Fletcher, who wrote the brilliant comedy, The Knight of the Burning Pestle, a mockery of the rising middle class and especially of those nouveaux riches who pretend to dictate literary taste without knowing much literature at all. In the story, a couple of grocers wrangle with professional actors to have their illiterate son play a leading role in a drama. He becomes a knight-errant wearing, appropriately, a burning pestle on his shield. Seeking to win a princess' heart, the young man is ridiculed much in the way Don Quixote was. One of Beaumont and Fletcher's chief merits was that of realising how feudalism and chivalry had turned into snobbery and make-believe and that new social classes were on the rise.
Another popular style of theatre ring Jacobean times was the revenge play, popularized by John Webster and Thomas Kyd. George Chapman wrote a couple of subtle revenge tragedies, but must be remembered chiefly on account of his famous translation of Homer, one that had a profound influence on all future English literature, even inspiring John Keats to write one of his best sonnets.
The King James Bible, one of the most massive translation projects in the history of English up to this time, was started in 1604 and completed in 1611. It represents the culmination of a tradition of Bible translation into English that began with the work of William Tyndale. It became the standard Bible of the Church of England, and some consider it one of the greatest literary works of all time. This project was headed by James I himself, who supervised the work of forty-seven scholars. Although many other translations into English have been made, some of which are widely considered more accurate, many aesthetically prefer the King James Bible, whose meter is made to mimic the original Hebrew verse.
Besides Shakespeare, whose figure towers over the early 1600s, the major poets of the early 17th century included John Donne and the other Metaphysical poets. Influenced by continental Baroque, and taking as his subject matter both Christian mysticism and eroticism, metaphysical poetry uses unconventional or "unpoetic" figures, such as a compass or a mosquito, to reach surprise effects. For example, in "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning", one of Donne's Songs and Sonnets, the points of a compass represent two lovers, the woman who is home, waiting, being the centre, the farther point being her lover sailing away from her. But the larger the distance, the more the hands of the compass lean to each other: separation makes love grow fonder. The paradox or the oxymoron is a constant in this poetry whose fears and anxieties also speak of a world of spiritual certainties shaken by the modern discoveries of geography and science, one that is no longer the centre of the universe. Apart from the metaphysical poetry of Donne, the 17th century is also celebrated for its Baroque poetry. Baroque poetry served the same ends as the art of the period; the Baroque style is lofty, sweeping, epic, and religious. Many of these poets have an overtly Catholic sensibility (namely Richard Crashaw) and wrote poetry for the Catholic counter-Reformation in order to establish a feeling of supremacy and mysticism that would ideally persuade newly emerging Protestant groups back toward Catholicism.
Caroline and Cromwellian literature
The turbulent years of the mid-17th century, ring the reign of Charles I and the subsequent Commonwealth and Protectorate, saw a flourishing of political literature in English. Pamphlets written by sympathisers of every faction in the English civil war ran from vicious personal attacks and polemics, through many forms of propaganda, to high-minded schemes to reform the nation. Of the latter type, Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes would prove to be one of the most important works of British political philosophy. Hobbes's writings are some of the few political works from the era which are still regularly published while John Bramhall, who was Hobbes's chief critic, is largely forgotten. The period also saw a flourishing of news books, the precursors to the British newspaper, with journalists such as Henry Muddiman, Marchamont Needham, and John Birkenhead representing the views and activities of the contending parties. The frequent arrests of authors and the suppression of their works, with the consequence of foreign or underground printing, led to the proposal of a licensing system. The Areopagitica, a political pamphlet by John Milton, was written in opposition to licensing and is regarded as one of the most eloquent defenses of press freedom ever written.
Specifically in the reign of Charles I (1625 – 42), English Renaissance theatre experienced its concluding efflorescence. The last works of Ben Jonson appeared on stage and in print, along with the final generation of major voices in the drama of the age: John Ford, Philip Massinger, James Shirley, and Richard Brome. With the closure of the theatres at the start of the English Civil War in 1642, drama was suppressed for a generation, to resume only in the altered society of the English Restoration in 1660.
Other forms of literature written ring this period are usually ascribed political subtexts, or their authors are grouped along political lines. The cavalier poets, active mainly before the civil war, owed much to the earlier school of metaphysical poets. The forced retirement of royalist officials after the execution of Charles I was a good thing in the case of Izaak Walton, as it gave him time to work on his book The Compleat Angler. Published in , the book, ostensibly a guide to fishing, is much more: a meditation on life, leisure, and contentment. The two most important poets of Oliver Cromwell's England were Andrew Marvell and John Milton, with both procing works praising the new government; such as Marvell's An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland. Despite their republican beliefs they escaped punishment upon the Restoration of Charles II, after which Milton wrote some of his greatest poetical works (with any possible political message hidden under allegory). Thomas Browne was another writer of the period; a learned man with an extensive library, he wrote prolifically on science, religion, medicine and the esoteric.
Restoration literature
Main article: Restoration Literature
Restoration literature includes both Paradise Lost and the Earl of Rochester's Sodom, the high spirited sexual comedy of The Country Wife and the moral wisdom of Pilgrim's Progress. It saw Locke's Treatises on Government, the founding of the Royal Society, the experiments of Robert Boyle and the holy meditations of Boyle, the hysterical attacks on theatres from Jeremy Collier, the pioneering of literary criticism from Dryden, and the first newspapers. The official break in literary culture caused by censorship and radically moralist standards under Cromwell's Puritan regime created a gap in literary tradition, allowing a seemingly fresh start for all forms of literature after the Restoration. During the Interregnum, the royalist forces attached to the court of Charles I went into exile with the twenty-year old Charles II. The nobility who travelled with Charles II were therefore lodged for over a decade in the midst of the continent's literary scene. Charles spent his time attending plays in France, and he developed a taste for Spanish plays. Those nobles living in Holland began to learn about mercantile exchange as well as the tolerant, rationalist prose debates that circulated in that officially tolerant nation.
The largest and most important poetic form of the era was satire. In general, publication of satire was done anonymously. There were great dangers in being associated with a satire. On the one hand, defamation law was a wide net, and it was difficult for a satirist to avoid prosecution if he were proven to have written a piece that seemed to criticize a noble. On the other hand, wealthy indivials would respond to satire as often as not by having the suspected poet physically attacked by ruffians. John Dryden was set upon for being merely suspected of having written the Satire on Mankind. A consequence of this anonymity is that a great many poems, some of them of merit, are unpublished and largely unknown.
『叁』 最近有什么好看的书文学性稍强一点，可以学到知识的那种。
一、哲学类
1．理想国（Republic） 作 者：柏拉图（Plato）
2．形而上学（Metaphysics） 作 者：亚里士多德 (Aristotle)
3．诗学（On the Art of Poetry） 作 者：亚里士多德 (Aristotle)
4．诗艺（On the Art of Poetry） 作 者：贺拉斯（Horace）
5．论崇高（On the Sublime Longinus） 作 者：朗吉奴斯（Longinus）
6．第一哲学沉思录（Meditations on First Philosophy）
作者：笛卡尔（Rene Descartes）
7．思想录（Pascal’s Penssees） 作 者：帕斯卡尔（Blaise Pascal）
8．人性论（A Treatise of Human Nature） 作 者：休谟（David Hume）
9． 纯粹理性批判（Critique of Pure Reason） 作 者：康德（Kant）
10．判断力批判（Critique of Judgment） 作 者：康德（Kant）
11．精神现象学（The Phenomenology of Mind）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：黑格尔（Hegel）
12．小逻辑（The Logic of Hegel） 作 者：黑格尔（Hegel）
13．作为意志和表象的世界（The World as Will and Representation）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：叔本华（Schopenhauer）
14．查拉图斯特拉如是说（Thus Spake Zarathustra）
作 者：尼采（Friedrich Nietzsche）
15．非此即彼（Either/Or）Vol.1, Vol.2 作 者：克尔凯郭尔（Kierkegaard）
16．普通语言学教程（Course in General Linguistics）
作 者：索绪尔（F.de Saussure）
17．纯粹现象学导论（Ideas: General Introction to Pure Phenomenology）
作 者：胡塞尔（Edmund Husserl）
18．逻辑哲学论（Tractatus Logico Philosophicus）(德英对照)
作 者：维特根斯坦（L.Wittgenstein）
19．哲学研究（Philosophical Investigations）(德英对照)
作 者：维特根斯坦（L.Wittgenstein）
20．存在与时间（Being and Time） 作 者：海德格尔（Martin Heidegger）
21．诗·语言·思（Poetry, Language, Thought）
作 者：海德格尔（Martin Heidegger）
22．存在与虚无（Being and Nothingness） 作 者：萨特（Jean-Paul Sartre）
23．真理与方法（Truth and Method） 作 者：伽达默尔（Hans-Georg Gadamer）
24．科学革命的结构（The Structure of Scientific Revolutions）
作 者：库恩（T.S.Kuhn）
25．性史（The History of Sexuality） 作 者：福柯（M.Foucault）
二、伦理学类(10种，7册，350元)
1．尼各马可伦理学（The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle）
作 者：亚里士多德 (Aristotle)
2． 道德情操论（The Theory of Moral Sentiments）
作 者：亚当·斯密（Adam Smith）
3．论人类不平等的起源和基础（A Discourse on Inequality）
作 者：卢梭（Jean-Jacques.Rousseau）
4． 实践理性批判（Critique of Practical Reason）
作 者：康德（Kant）
5．道德形而上学基础（Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals）
作 者：康德（Kant）
6．功利主义（Utilitarianism） 作 者：穆勒（Mill）
7．伦理学原理（Principia Ethica） 作 者：摩尔（G.E.Moore）
8．正义论（A Theory of Justice） 作 者：罗尔斯（John Rawls）
9．无政府、国家与乌托邦（Anarchy, State and Utopia）
作 者：诺齐克（Robert Nozick）
10．追寻美德（After Virtue） 作 者：麦金太尔（Alasdair MacIntyre）
三、宗教学类(10种，11册，550元)
1．忏悔录（Confessions） 作 者：圣·奥古斯丁（St.Augustine）
2．托马斯·阿奎那要籍选（Basic Writings of Saint Thomas Aquinas）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：阿奎那（St.Thomas Aquinas）
3．迷途指津（The Guide for the Perplexed） 作 者：马蒙尼德（Maimonides）
4．路德基本著作选（Basic Theological Writings）
作 者：马丁·路德（Martin Luther）
5．论宗教（On Religion） 作 者：施莱尔马赫（F.D.Schleiermacher）
6．我与你（I and Thou） 作 者：马丁·布伯（Martin Buber）
7．人的本性及其命运（The Nature and Destiny of Man）
作 者：尼布尔（R.Niebuhr）
8．神圣者的观念（The Idea of the Holy） 作 者：奥托（Rudolf Otto）
9．存在的勇气（The Courage to Be） 作 者：梯利希（Paul Tillich）
10．教会教义学（Church Dogmatics） 作 者：卡尔·巴特（Karl Barth）
四、社会学类(5种，6册，300元)
1．论自杀（Suicide: A Study in Sociology） 作 者：杜克海姆（Emilc Durkheim）
2．新教伦理与资本主义精神（The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism）
作 者：韦伯（Max Weber）
3．货币哲学（The Philosophy of Money） 作 者：席美尔（Georg Simmel）
4．一般社会学论集（A Treatise on General Sociology）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：帕累托（Vilfredo Pareto）
5．意识形态与乌托邦（Ideology and Utopia） 作 者：曼海姆（K.Mannheim）
五、人类学类(5种，4册，200元)
1．金枝（The Golden Bough） 作 者：弗雷泽（James G.Frazer）
2． 西太平洋上的航海者（Argonauts of the Western Pacific）
作 者：马林诺夫斯基（B.Malinowski）
3． 原始思维（The Savage Mind） 作 者：列维-斯特劳斯（Claude Levi-Strauss）
4． 原始社会的结构和功能（Structure and Function in Primitive Society）
作 者：拉迪克里夫-布郎（Brown）
5．种族、语言、文化（Race, Language and Culture）
作 者：鲍斯（Franz Boas）
六、政治学类(10种，11册，550元)
1．政治学（The Politics of Aristotle） 作 者：亚里士多德 (Aristotle)
2．君主论（The Prince） 作 者：马基雅维里（Niccolo Machiavelli）
3．社会契约论（The Social Contract） 作 者：卢梭（Jean-Jacques.Rousseau）
4．利维坦（Leviathan） 作 者：霍布斯（Thomas Hobbes）
5． 政府论（上下篇）（Two Treatises of Government）
作 者：洛克（John Locke）
6．论法的精神（The Spirit of the Laws）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：孟德斯鸠（Montesquieu）
7．论美国民主（Democracy in America）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：托克维尔（Alexis de Tocqueville）
8．代议制政府（Considerations on Representative Government）
作 者：穆勒（Mill）
9．联邦党人文集（The Federalist Papers）
作 者：汉密尔顿（Alexander Hamilton）
10．自由秩序原理（The Constitution of Liberty）
作 者：哈耶克（F.A.Hayek）
七、经济学类(10种，12册，600元)
1．国民财富的性质和原因的研究（An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：亚当·斯密（Adam Smith）
2．经济学原理（Principles of Economics）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：马歇尔（Alfred Marshall）
3．福利经济学（The Economics of Welfare）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者： 庇古（A.C.Pigou）
4．就业、利息与货币的一般理论（The General Theory of Employment Interest and Money）
作 者：凯恩斯（J.M.Keynes）
5．经济发展理论（The Theory of Economic Development）
作 者：熊彼特（Schumpeter）
6．人类行为（Human Action: A Treatise on Economics）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：米塞斯（Mises）
7．经济分析的基础（Foundations of Economic Analysis）
作 者：萨缪尔森（Samuelson）
8．货币数量理论研究（Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money）
作 者：弗里德曼（Friedman）
9．集体选择与社会福利（Collective Choice and Social Welfare）
作 者：阿玛蒂亚·森（A.K.Sen）
10．资本主义经济制度（The Economic Institutions of Capitalism）
作 者：威廉姆森（Williamson）
八、心理学类(7种，8册，400元)
1．心理学原理（The Principles of Psychology）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：威廉·詹姆士（William James）
2．生理心理学原理（Principles of Physiological Psychology）
作 者：冯特（W.Wundt）
3．梦的解析（The Interpretation of Dreams）
作 者：弗洛伊德（Sigmund Freud）
4．儿童智慧的起源（The Origin of Intelligence in the Child）
作 者：皮亚杰（Jean Piaget）
5．科学与人类行为（Science and Human Behavior）
作 者：斯金纳（B.F.Skinner）
6．原型与集体无意识（The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious）
作 者：荣格（C.G.Jung）
7． 动机与人格（Motivation and Personality）
作 者：马斯洛 （A.H.Maslow）
九、法学类(10种，9册，450元)
1．古代法（Ancient Law） 作 者：梅因（H.Maine）
2．英国法与文艺复兴（English Law and the Renaissance）
作 者：梅特兰（F.W.Maitland）
3．法理学讲演录（Lectures on Jurisprudence）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：奥斯丁（J.Austin）
4．法律的社会学理论（A Sociological Theory of Law）
作 者：卢曼（N.Luhmann）
5．法律社会学之基本原理（Fundamental Principles of the Sociology of Law）
作 者：埃利希（E.Ehrlich）
6．法律、宪法与自由（Law, Legislation and Liberty）
作 者：哈耶克（F.A.Hayek）
7．纯粹法学理论（Pure Theory of Law）
作 者：凯尔森（H.Kelsen）
8．法律之概念（The Concept of Law）
作 者：哈特（H.L.A.Hart）
9．法律之帝国（Law’s Empire）
作 者：德沃金（R.Dworkin）
10．法律的经济学分析（Economic Analysis of Law）
作 者：波斯纳（Richard A.Posner）
十、历史学类(8种，10册，500元)
1．历史（The Histories） 作 者：希罗多德（Herodotus）
2．伯罗奔尼撒战争史（The Peloponnesian War）作 者：修昔底德（Thucydides）
3．编年史（The Annals of Imperial Rome） 作 者：塔西陀（Tacitus）
4．上帝之城（The City of God）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：圣·奥古斯丁（St.Augustine）
5．历史学：理论和实践（History: its Theory and Practice）
作 者：克罗齐（Benedetto Croce）
6．历史的观念（The Idea of History） 作 者：柯林伍德（R.G.Collingwood）
7．腓力普二世时代的地中海与地中海世界（The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II）》Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：布罗代尔（F.Braudel）
8．历史研究（A Study of History）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：汤因比（A.J.Toynbee）
『肆』 city与urban有什么区别
City与urban区别
1、city城市，比town【城镇】大一些，但小于metropolis【大都会】。
A city is a large and permanent human settlement.
Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town
in general English language meanings, many cities have a particular
administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law.
city城市是法律的定义：是一个较大、永久人类栖居地；根据国家法律，具有行政、司法权利或历史地位的地方政府。
2、urban是形容词，指和城市相关的内容，尤其是城市才具有的都市文化。
Urban means "related to cities." It may refer to:
Urban area, geographical area distinct from rural areas；
Urban culture, the culture of towns and cities, sometimes used as a euphemism for African-American culture.
urban和文学、文化相关的词汇，从地理来说相对于乡村地区rural areas；从文化上来说，指城市才具有的都市文化。在美国也可以指时尚、阳春白雪式白人文化以暗讽美国黑人文化African-American culture。
以上内容摘自维基网络From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia。
『伍』 求10条有文学色彩的广告词和简短的点评
魅力空间，创意无限。（时尚创意节目广告词）
一生追随，无怨无悔。（企业广告词）
自始至衷，有你感动。（“情感”节目广告词）
美好滋味，自己体会。（“快餐店”广告词）
壮志在心头，好运伴我走。（“鞋业公司”广告词）
自我自主，任你摆步。（“运动鞋”产品广告词）
朋友一齐干杯，知己为我而醉。（酒企业广告词）
做广告录音还是魅力造音。（魅力造音网广告词）
让快乐张开翅膀，看梦想瞬间绽放。（“梦想中国”节目广告词）
品味迎客松，独领中国风。（“迎客松”香烟广告词）
我动故我在。（“运动系列产品”广告词）
岁月情，随“乐”心。（音乐节目广告词）
让快乐张开翅膀，看梦想瞬间绽放。（“梦想中国”节目广告词）
品味迎客松，独领中国风。（“迎客松”香烟广告词）
“钻”心“石”智（钻石广告词）
你的希望，我的可能。（企业广告词）
感受阳光，给予希望。（“希望工程”宣传语）
有酸有甜，有“自”有味。（优酸乳广告词）
幸福女人，钻石人生。（“钻石”广告词）
畅饮杯中往事。（“酒企业”广告词）
相同的选择，不同的期待。（超市，商场广告词）
营养作主，我行我素。（“绿色蔬菜”广告词）
咀嚼老歌，回味经典。（音乐广播广告词）
把握人生，沟通世界。（手机广告词）新歌速递，快乐知己。（音乐广播广告词）
感受阳光，给予希望。（“希望工程”宣传语）
有酸有甜，有“自”有味。（优酸乳广告词）
幸福女人，钻石人生。（“钻石”广告词）
畅饮杯中往事。（“酒企业”广告词）
相同的选择，不同的期待。（超市，商场广告词）
营养作主，我行我素。（“绿色蔬菜”广告词）
咀嚼老歌，回味经典。（音乐广播广告词）
把握人生，沟通世界。（手机广告词）新歌速递，快乐知己。（音乐广播广告词）
时刻准备着，美丽不打折。（女人用品专卖店广告词）
魅力空间，创意无限。（时尚创意节目广告词）
一生追随，无怨无悔。（企业广告词）
自始至衷，有你感动。（“情感”节目广告词）
美好滋，自己体会。（“快餐店”广告词）
壮志在心头，好运伴我走。（“鞋业公司”广告词）
自我自主，任你摆步。（“运动鞋”产品广告词）
千里始于足，从“心”开始。（鞋业公司广告词）
让快乐张开翅膀，看梦想瞬间绽放。（“梦想中国”节目广告词）
品味迎客松，独领中国风。（“迎客松”香烟广告词）
我动故我在。（“运动系列产品”广告词）
开启欢乐时刻，收获美好时光。（“美好时光食品”广告词）
新生活，心滋味。（“房地产公司”广告词）
让你心跳，不如尖叫。（“尖叫”饮料广告词）
杯中水，人之味。（矿泉水广告词）
关注，关心，关爱。（“希望工程”宣传语）
因为梦想，所以北京。（“北京2008奥运会”广告词）
一声朋友，天“尝”地“酒”。（“酒”广告词）
等待时光穿梭，共享美好时刻。（“美好时光”食品广告词）
最动女人情，最懂女人心。（“女人用品专卖店”广告词）
心的渴望，梦的起点。（“职业技术院校”宣传语）
亲近“阳光”，新鲜自然。（“阳光牧场”乳品广告词）
色彩女人，缤纷世界。（女性化妆品公司广告词）
爱对嘴，要对味。（优酸乳广告词）
有梦相随，永不言退。（企业、公司广告词）
五味生活，七彩生命。（照相机胶卷广告词）
飘逸留香，丝丝动人。（洗发水广告词）
香浓情怀，滴滴忘我。（速溶咖啡饮品广告词）
清雅轻便，倾“诚”倾国。（轿车品牌广告词）
精彩瞬间，永恒画面。（照相机广告词）
比世界更浪漫，
比夸张更时尚。（时尚服装品牌广告词）
世界看中国，中国有芜湖。（安徽芜湖城市宣传语）
迎客途中，“松”温旧梦。（“迎客松”香烟广告词）
有主张，不夸张。（“服饰”公司广告词）
品味牛奶心，感悟草原情。（“牛奶”企业广告词）
岁月情，随“乐”心。（音乐节目广告词）
千里始于足，从“心”开始。（鞋业公司广告词）
让快乐张开翅膀，看梦想瞬间绽放。（“梦想中国”节目广告词）
有主张，不夸张。（“服饰”公司广告词）
品味牛奶心，感悟草原情。（“牛奶”企业广告词）
2008最新经典广告词国际英语,欢乐无比！
impossibleisnothing(adidas)
没有不可能！（运动鞋）
NothingcancomeofNothing．
物有其本，事有其源。(莎士比亚)
BuyAustralian,Buyyouajob.
买澳洲货，给你买份工作．(澳大利亚)
Oneworld,Onedream.(北京奥运会)
1%inspirationisbiggerthan99%perspiration.(Genius)
灵感一闪，胜于劳碌一生。（天才）
Tomorrowisalwaysthebusiestday!
明日复明日，明日何其多，（明天）
,thereislovewithoutmarriage.（Lover）
有姻无爱，就会有爱无姻（情人）
OpinioncoversoverFacts.(Lawyer)
雄辩胜于事实。(律师)
Anythingispossible.
一切皆有可能。------李宁
FatherAndMother,ILoveYou!(family)
爸爸妈妈，我爱你!(家庭)
最新经典广告词著名世界的广告语
Goodtothelastdrop．
滴滴香浓，意犹未尽。（麦斯威尔咖啡）
Obeyyourthirst．
服从你的渴望。（雪碧）
Poetryinmotion，dancingclosetome．
动态的诗，向我舞近。（丰田汽车）
Justdoit.
只管去做。（耐克运动鞋）
Feelthenewspace.
感受新境界。（三星电子）
Intelligenceeverywhere.
智慧演绎，无处不在。（摩托罗拉手机）
Thechoiceofanewgeneration.
新一代的选择。（百事可乐）
Weintegrate,youcommunicate.
我们集大成，您联络世界。（三菱电工）
TakeTOSHIBA,taketheworld.
拥有东芝，拥有世界。（东芝电子）
Nobusinesstoosmall,noproblemtoobig.
没有不做的小生意，没有解决不了的大问题。（IBM公司）
JoinWorldenglish，EnjoyEnglishworld.(新世界国际英语)
旅游地广告宣传词
Hershey, Pennsylvania：The Sweetest Place on Earth地球上最甜的地方
Detroit,Michigan底特律(密西根州)：The Renaissance City再生的城市
Boston,Massachusetts波士顿(麻省)：The Bicentennial City两百年的城市
Spain西班牙： Everything under the sun阳光下的一切
Newyork纽约： I Love Newyork我爱纽约
Pennsylvania宾西法尼亚： America Starts Here美国从这里开始
Quebec魁北克：It Feels So Different感觉如此不同
Aruba阿鲁巴：Our Only Business Is You我们唯一的事情就是为你服务
瑞士：世界的公园，瑞士、瑞士、还是瑞士
夏威夷：夏威夷是微笑的群岛，这里阳光灿烂
香港：魅力香港、万象之都。动感之都
泰国：Amazing Thailand神奇的泰国
新加坡：无限的新加坡，无限的旅游业；尽情享受，难以忘怀；新亚洲-新加坡新感觉
澳大利亚：令人心旷神怡的澳大利亚
佛罗里达州：佛罗里达，与众不同
宾夕法尼亚州：美国从这里开始
香港：魅力香港，万象之都；动感之都；我们是香港
上海：新上海、新感受
桂林：桂林山水甲天下
苏州、杭州：上有天堂、下有苏杭
宋城：给我一天，还你千年
美国好莱坞宇宙城公园：让游人进入侏罗纪时代
『陆』 英国文学中的，怎么翻译
大地再没有比这儿更美的风貌
旭日金挥洒布于峡谷山陵，
也不比这片晨光更为奇丽；
全文是：
Earth has not anything to show more fair:
Dull would he be of soul who could pass by
A sight so touching in its majesty:
This City now doth, like a garment, wear
The beauty of the morning; silent, bare,
Ships, towers, domes, theatres, and temples lie
Open unto the fields, and to the sky;
All bright and glittering in the smokeless air.
Never did sun more beautifully steep
In his first splendour, valley, rock, or hill;
Ne'er saw I, never felt, a calm so deep!
The river glideth at his own sweet will:
Dear God! the very houses seem asleep;
And all that mighty heart is lying still!
威斯敏斯特桥上
大地再没有比这儿更美的风貌：
若有谁，对如此壮丽动人的景物
竟无动于衷，那才是灵魂麻木；
瞧这座城市，像披上一领新袍，
披上了明艳的晨光；环顾周遭：
船舶，尖塔，剧院，教堂，华屋，
都寂然、坦然，向郊野、向天穹赤露，
在烟尘未染的大气里粲然闪耀。
旭日金挥洒布于峡谷山陵，
也不比这片晨光更为奇丽；
我何尝见过、感受过这深沉的宁静！
河上徐流，由着自己的心意；
上帝呵！千门万户都沉睡未醒，
这整个宏大的心脏仍然在歇息！
（杨德豫译）
参考资料：中国书网
『柒』 文学之都的诺利奇
英国的城市里，诺利奇（Norwich）的国际知名度并不十分高，但联合国教科文组织（UNESCO）的一专项决定可能改变这属一状况。
UNESCO发现这个英格兰中部城镇历史文化遗产丰厚，而其中最宝贵的是那里深厚的文学积淀。于是，诺利奇被命名为“世界文学城市”（City of Literature），成为英格兰第一个、全球第六个获此殊荣的城市。
诺利奇作家中心（WCN）说，诺利奇对此殊荣受之无愧、当仁不让。两项历史第一可以说明问题：世界上已知第一部女性撰写的英语书籍在诺利奇出版，第一份地方报纸也是在诺利奇出版发行。
向联合国教科文组织递交申请，为诺利奇争取“文学之都”荣誉的正是WCN。
除了文学领域的历史积淀深厚，诺利奇的文学传统得到很好的保留和发扬，也是它可引以为傲的资本。
