欧洲文化入门论文题目

㈣ 欧洲文化入门 论文2000字（英文）

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摘要 基督教被罗马统治者宣布为国教，标志着一神教思想终于为异教社会所接受，受到广大民众到统治者的普遍尊重。按理同为一神教的犹太教的地位也应有所改善，因为毕竟犹太教是孕育基督教的「母亲宗教」，毕竟基督教神学思想的大部分内容直接来自犹太教。然而事实却恰好相反，坐到国教交椅上的基督教竟与罗马统治者联手，开始了对自己「母亲」的一系列迫害。

关键词 基督教 犹太教

从公元前二世纪至公元一世纪，散居在巴勒斯坦以外的犹太人以亚历山大为中心，他们与希腊思想的长期接触，势必使犹太教信仰与希腊文化环境相适应，以希腊思想来阐述犹太教思想。这种希腊化的犹太教思想，从公元前二世纪中叶到公元一世纪中叶的200年间，在当时经济、文化最发达，思想交流最活跃的亚历山大犹太人中广泛流行。这种思想突破了民族的界限，使它便于为其他民族所接受，为后来基督教在罗马帝国的传播准备了土壤。基督教正是在继承和发展犹太教的过程中结合希腊哲学思想而逐渐形成的。

根据《新约》的记载，早期发展基督教的大多是希腊化了的犹太人。在传教初期，犹太教圣经仍然是他们依据的主要经典。也因此基督教从犹太教思想中继承了许多积极的内容，如人与人之间要有爱心，要彼此相爱等等。

基督教与犹太教虽然同源，但是两教在教义、礼节和生活实践方面也存在着许多重要的分歧和差别。事实上，基督教从非法走向合法的过程中，与「母亲宗教」犹太教之间的矛盾愈来愈尖锐。

长期以来，由于犹太教和基督教信仰一神教，反对偶像崇拜，因此同样受到罗马统治者的歧视和迫害。早期基督教的信徒主要成分是劳苦大众，反对罗马帝国尤其激烈，所受的打击也愈严重。但是公元二世纪后，许多富人加入了基督教，并逐渐夺取了教会的领导权，使基督教发生了性质上的改变。教会开始奉行温和路线，把耶稣描述成卑微恭顺、逆来顺受的代表，极力宣传不抵抗主义。罗马统治者看到基督教已经失去反抗性，再也不会对其统治造成威胁，于是也改变了对基督教的态度。公元三九二年，罗马统治者宣布基督教为国教，同时下令禁止异教信仰，罗马皇帝君士坦丁也皈依了基督教。这样基督教一跃而成为统治者的宠儿，迅速发展为全欧洲、乃至世界性的宗教。而犹太教此后仍局限于在犹太人中发展。

基督教被罗马统治者宣布为国教，标志着一神教思想终于为异教社会所接受，受到广大民众到统治者的普遍尊重。按理同为一神教的犹太教的地位也应有所改善，因为毕竟犹太教是孕育基督教的「母亲宗教」，毕竟基督教神学思想的大部分内容直接来自犹太教。然而事实却恰好相反，为了争取更多的犹太人脱离犹太教，改奉基督教，同时也为了讨好罗马统治者，坐到国教交椅上的基督教便竭力诋毁和攻击犹太教，为大肆迫害犹太教制造舆论。基督教甚至与罗马统治者联手，开始了对自己「母亲」的一系列迫害。

基督教创始人为了淡化犹太教对基督教的影响，首先就把犹太人的《圣经》称为《旧约》，而将基督教添加部分称为《新约》。其言下之意是，上帝与犹太人订约的事已成过去，现在上帝已同基督徒订立新约。就这样，基督教创始人在肯定犹太人《圣经》的同时又否定了它，在应用它的同时又取代它。他们通过宣扬旧的契约实际上已被新的契约所代替，而证明上帝已经唾弃了过去认定的选民犹太人，而把他对人类的爱转向了基督徒。《圣经新约》是耶稣死后百年，由基督教会编写的经典，集中地记载了基督教对犹太教的种种诋毁与攻击。

当时基督教对犹太教发出的众多指责中，影响最为深远、攻击最为恶毒的为指责犹太人是杀害耶稣的凶手。这是《新约》中反犹言论的最核心部分，成为日后基督徒仇恨犹太人的最主要原因。《新约》中的四大福音书大体上是这样说的：耶稣原为犹太教徒，但不按照犹太教的传统布道，他修正摩西戒律，甚至向人们宣传他具有显示神迹的能力。因此招致正统犹太人的不满和嫉恨。这一年逾越节的前夕，他按照古代先知预言过的方式，骑驴进入圣城耶路撒冷。入城后，他洁净了圣殿，并在殿中宣讲福音。由于叛徒犹大的出卖，耶稣就被犹太祭司捉拿，押往犹太教公会受审，受审期间，耶稣不仅遭受侮辱，还被毒打。为了置耶稣于死地，犹太祭司和长老把他捆起来交给当地罗马总督彼拉多处置。彼拉多本想释放耶稣，却遭到犹太人的坚决反对。不得已，彼拉多下令判处耶稣死刑。这一点，经过史学家、神学家和犹太教专家对史料典籍的深入研究发现，《新约》中有关耶稣被害经过的记载与事实不符，完全是歪曲和编造。

总而言之，由于古代犹太教内部的分裂，从犹太教中产生了早期的基督教，早期基督教徒继承了犹太教圣经以及所包含的某些思想。也正是因为在这些渊源关系中有许多的差异，使犹太教和基督教长期争论不休，以至逐渐酿成根深蒂固的宗教仇恨、民族成见，并发生过基督徒对犹太人的残酷迫害和屠杀。一些西方历史学家认为，基督教精神是西方文化的主要因素之一。实际上，基督教思想、组织和礼仪活动都以犹太教为其原型而加以发展。不少西方历史家称西方文化为“犹太——基督教文化”，这不是没有原因的。然而，在希腊文化的影响下，基督教在一定程度上又超越了犹太教思想，对中世纪及近现代西方的价值观、伦理道德观产生了深远的影响。

㈥ 欧洲文化入门 论文（英文）

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Abstract:
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized indivialism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But e to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
Keywords: National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature
摘要： 从殖民地时期起，欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期， 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大 影响 。一直到美国独立后，美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要，美国的民族文学开始 发展 。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭， 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期，产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义，和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的 时代 是美国前所未有的文学变动时代，产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量，也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响， 社会 动荡不安，这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面， 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展，创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后，美国人陷入战后的茫然， 美国也开始进入了 现代 文学阶段。
关键词： 民族文学， 浪漫主义， 超验主义， 本土色彩， 现实主义， 现代文学
American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.
The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized indivialism and intuition，and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But e to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
1. Colonial and early American literature
(1). Travelers and Explorers
When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).
Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.
(2) Pilgrim settlements
Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However , because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997)
The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4)
Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.
People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.
One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.
2. 18th century—the Age of reason
(1) The Age of reason
In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.
Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.
Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.
And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.
During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.
(2) Early National Literature
During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.
The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“.

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㈦ 欧洲文化入门的大纲 或者目录 题目是 古希腊罗马文化（或文学） 谢谢

古代文学
课程内容
一、古希腊文学
二、古罗马文学
三、早期基督教文学
考核要求与考核知识点
1,、识记：古希腊、罗马文学是欧洲文化和文学的发源地。古罗马文学的分期及主要代表作家作品。古希腊文学的三个分期及代表作家作品。第一部文人史诗《埃涅阿斯记》。
2,、理解：古希腊罗马文学和早期基督教文学是欧洲文学的两大源头。古罗马文学是古希腊和后世欧洲文学之间的桥梁。“伊索寓言”；《埃涅阿斯记》的思想内容及艺术特色。
3、应用:古希腊文学的特征。

第二节 古希腊神话
课程内容
一希腊神话内容
二希腊神话特点
三希腊神话影响
考核要求与考核知识点
1 识记：奥林波斯神系。英雄传说
2理解：希腊神话的内容和艺术价值
3应用：希腊神话的特点

第三节 荷马史诗
课程内容
一荷马史诗内容
二荷马史诗艺术成就
考核要求与知识点
1识记：《伊利昂记》的主要英雄任务。《奥德修记》的主人公。
2理解：荷马史诗
3应用：荷马史诗的思想内容和艺术成就

第四季 古希腊戏剧
课程内容
一古希腊悲剧
二古希腊喜剧

考核要求与知识点
1识记：古希腊三大悲剧作家和喜剧作家及其代表作品。
2理解：古希腊戏剧中的命运观念和人本思想。三大悲剧诗人对希腊悲剧的发展做出的重要贡献。

以上是从《外国文学史》课后大纲照着打下来的，希望对你有所帮助

㈧ 急急急！！！关于欧洲文化入门的论文，3000字。发我邮箱[email protected].

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㈨ 200分急求一篇欧洲文化入门论文（英语）

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