『壹』 古城這兩個字的英文,簡短一點的
古城這兩個字的英文
短一點： Old City/Town
文學一點：Ancient City/Town
『貳』 英國文學論文
The term English literature refers to literature written in the English language, including literature composed in English by writers not necessarily from England; Joseph Conrad was Polish, Robert Burns was Scottish, James Joyce was Irish, Dylan Thomas was Welsh, Edgar Allan Poe was American, Salman Rushdie is Indian, V.S. Naipaul was born in Trinidad, Vladimir Nabokov was Russian. In other words, English literature is as diverse as the varieties and dialects of English spoken around the world. In academia, the term often labels departments and programmes practising English studies in secondary and tertiary ecational systems. Despite the variety of authors of English literature, the works of William Shakespeare remain paramount throughout the English-speaking world.
This article primarily deals with literature from Britain written in English. For literature from specific English-speaking regions, consult the see also section at the bottom of the page.
Contents [hide]
1 Old English
2 Renaissance literature
3 Early Modern period
3.1 Elizabethan Era
3.2 Jacobean literature
3.3 Caroline and Cromwellian literature
3.4 Restoration literature
3.5 Augustan literature
4 18th century
5 Romanticism
6 Victorian literature
7 Modernism
8 Post-modern literature
9 Views of English literature
10 See also
11 External links
Old English
Main article: Anglo-Saxon literature
The first works in English, written in Old English, appeared in the early Middle Ages (the oldest surviving text is Cædmon's Hymn). The oral tradition was very strong in early British culture and most literary works were written to be performed. Epic poems were thus very popular and many, including Beowulf, have survived to the present day in the rich corpus of Anglo-Saxon literature that closely resemble today's Norwegian or, better yet, Icelandic. Much Anglo-Saxon verse in the extant manuscripts is probably a "milder" adaptation of the earlier Viking and German war poems from the continent. When such poetry was brought to England it was still being handed down orally from one generation to another, and the constant presence of alliterative verse, or consonant rhyme (today's newspaper headlines and marketing abundantly use this technique such as in Big is Better) helped the Anglo-Saxon peoples remember it. Such rhyme is a feature of Germanic languages and is opposed to vocalic or end-rhyme of Romance languages. But the first written literature dates to the early Christian monasteries founded by St. Augustine of Canterbury and his disciples and it is reasonable to believe that it was somehow adapted to suit to needs of Christian readers. Even without their crudest lines, Viking war poems still smell of blood feuds and their consonant rhymes sound like the smashing of swords under the gloomy northern sky: there is always a sense of imminent danger in the narratives. Sooner or later, all things must come to an end, as Beowulf eventually dies at the hands of the monsters he spends the tale fighting. The feelings of Beowulf that nothing lasts, that youth and joy will turn to death and sorrow entered Christianity and were to dominate the future landscape of English fiction.
Renaissance literature
Main article: English Renaissance
Following the introction of a printing press into England by William Caxton in 1476, vernacular literature flourished. The Reformation inspired the proction of vernacular liturgy which led to the Book of Common Prayer, a lasting influence on literary English language. The poetry, drama, and prose proced under both Queen Elizabeth I and King James I constitute what is today labelled as Early modern (or Renaissance).
Early Modern period
Further information: Early Modern English and Early Modern Britain
Elizabethan Era
Main article: Elizabethan literature
The Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in the field of drama. The Italian Renaissance had rediscovered the ancient Greek and Roman theatre, and this was instrumental in the development of the new drama, which was then beginning to evolve apart from the old mystery and miracle plays of the Middle Ages. The Italians were particularly inspired by Seneca (a major tragic playwright and philosopher, the tutor of Nero) and Plautus (its comic cliché, especially that of the boasting soldier had a powerful influence on the Renaissance and after). However, the Italian tragedies embraced a principle contrary to Seneca's ethics: showing blood and violence on the stage. In Seneca's plays such scenes were only acted by the characters. But the English playwrights were intrigued by Italian model: a conspicuous community of Italian actors had settled in London and Giovanni Florio had brought much of the Italian language and culture to England. It is also true that the Elizabethan Era was a very violent age and that the high incidence of political assassinations in Renaissance Italy (embodied by Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince) did little to calm fears of popish plots. As a result, representing that kind of violence on the stage was probably more cathartic for the Elizabethan spectator. Following earlier Elizabethan plays such as Gorboc by Sackville & Norton and The Spanish Tragedy by Kyd that was to provide much material for Hamlet, William Shakespeare stands out in this period as a poet and playwright as yet unsurpassed. Shakespeare was not a man of letters by profession, and probably had only some grammar school ecation. He was neither a lawyer, nor an aristocrat as the "university wits" that had monopolised the English stage when he started writing. But he was very gifted and incredibly versatile, and he surpassed "professionals" as Robert Greene who mocked this "shake-scene" of low origins. Though most dramas met with great success, it is in his later years (marked by the early reign of James I) that he wrote what have been considered his greatest plays: Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra, and The Tempest, a tragicomedy that inscribes within the main drama a brilliant pageant to the new king. This 'play within a play' takes the form of a masque, an interlude with music and dance coloured by the novel special effects of the new indoor theatres. Critics have shown that this masterpiece, which can be considered a dramatic work in its own right, was written for James's court, if not for the monarch himself. The magic arts of Prospero, on which depend the outcome of the plot, hint at the fine relationship between art and nature in poetry. Significantly for those times (the arrival of the first colonists in America), The Tempest is (though not apparently) set on a Bermudan island, as research on the Bermuda Pamphlets (1609) has shown, linking Shakespeare to the Virginia Company itself. The "News from the New World", as Frank Kermode points out, were already out and Shakespeare's interest in this respect is remarkable. Shakespeare also popularized the English sonnet which made significant changes to Petrarch's model.
The sonnet was introced into English by Thomas Wyatt in the early 16th century. Poems intended to be set to music as songs, such as by Thomas Campion, became popular as printed literature was disseminated more widely in households. See English Madrigal School. Other important figures in Elizabethan theatre include Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Dekker, John Fletcher and Francis Beaumont. Had Marlowe (1564-1593) not been stabbed at twenty-nine in a tavern brawl, says Anthony Burgess, he might have rivalled, if not equalled Shakespeare himself for his poetic gifts. Remarkably, he was born only a few weeks before Shakespeare and must have known him well. Marlowe's subject matter, though, is different: it focuses more on the moral drama of the renaissance man than any other thing. Marlowe was fascinated and terrified by the new frontiers opened by modern science. Drawing on German lore, he introced Dr. Faustus to England, a scientist and magician who is obsessed by the thirst of knowledge and the desire to push man's technological power to its limits. He acquires supernatural gifts that even allow him to go back in time and wed Helen of Troy, but at the end of his twenty-four years' covenant with the devil he has to surrender his soul to him. His dark heroes may have something of Marlowe himself, whose untimely death remains a mystery. He was known for being an atheist, leading a lawless life, keeping many mistresses, consorting with ruffians: living the 'high life' of London's underworld. But many suspect that this might have been a cover-up for his activities as a secret agent for Elizabeth I, hinting that the 'accidental stabbing' might have been a premeditated assassination by the enemies of The Crown. Beaumont and Fletcher are less-known, but it is almost sure that they helped Shakespeare write some of his best dramas, and were quite popular at the time. It is also at this time that the city comedy genre develops. In the later 16th century English poetry was characterised by elaboration of language and extensive allusion to classical myths. The most important poets of this era include Edmund Spenser and Sir Philip Sidney. Elizabeth herself, a proct of Renaissance humanism, proced occasional poems such as On Monsieur』s Departure.
Canons of Renaissance poetry
Jacobean literature
After Shakespeare's death, the poet and dramatist Ben Jonson was the leading literary figure of the Jacobean era (The reign of James I). However, Jonson's aesthetics hark back to the Middle Ages rather than to the Tudor Era: his characters embody the theory of humours. According to this contemporary medical theory, behavioral differences result from a prevalence of one of the body's four "humours" (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) over the other three; these humours correspond with the four elements of the universe: air, water, fire, and earth. This leads Jonson to exemplify such differences to the point of creating types, or clichés.
Jonson is a master of style, and a brilliant satirist. His Volpone shows how a group of scammers are fooled by a top con-artist, vice being punished by vice, virtue meting out its reward.
Others who followed Jonson's style include Beaumont and Fletcher, who wrote the brilliant comedy, The Knight of the Burning Pestle, a mockery of the rising middle class and especially of those nouveaux riches who pretend to dictate literary taste without knowing much literature at all. In the story, a couple of grocers wrangle with professional actors to have their illiterate son play a leading role in a drama. He becomes a knight-errant wearing, appropriately, a burning pestle on his shield. Seeking to win a princess' heart, the young man is ridiculed much in the way Don Quixote was. One of Beaumont and Fletcher's chief merits was that of realising how feudalism and chivalry had turned into snobbery and make-believe and that new social classes were on the rise.
Another popular style of theatre ring Jacobean times was the revenge play, popularized by John Webster and Thomas Kyd. George Chapman wrote a couple of subtle revenge tragedies, but must be remembered chiefly on account of his famous translation of Homer, one that had a profound influence on all future English literature, even inspiring John Keats to write one of his best sonnets.
The King James Bible, one of the most massive translation projects in the history of English up to this time, was started in 1604 and completed in 1611. It represents the culmination of a tradition of Bible translation into English that began with the work of William Tyndale. It became the standard Bible of the Church of England, and some consider it one of the greatest literary works of all time. This project was headed by James I himself, who supervised the work of forty-seven scholars. Although many other translations into English have been made, some of which are widely considered more accurate, many aesthetically prefer the King James Bible, whose meter is made to mimic the original Hebrew verse.
Besides Shakespeare, whose figure towers over the early 1600s, the major poets of the early 17th century included John Donne and the other Metaphysical poets. Influenced by continental Baroque, and taking as his subject matter both Christian mysticism and eroticism, metaphysical poetry uses unconventional or "unpoetic" figures, such as a compass or a mosquito, to reach surprise effects. For example, in "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning", one of Donne's Songs and Sonnets, the points of a compass represent two lovers, the woman who is home, waiting, being the centre, the farther point being her lover sailing away from her. But the larger the distance, the more the hands of the compass lean to each other: separation makes love grow fonder. The paradox or the oxymoron is a constant in this poetry whose fears and anxieties also speak of a world of spiritual certainties shaken by the modern discoveries of geography and science, one that is no longer the centre of the universe. Apart from the metaphysical poetry of Donne, the 17th century is also celebrated for its Baroque poetry. Baroque poetry served the same ends as the art of the period; the Baroque style is lofty, sweeping, epic, and religious. Many of these poets have an overtly Catholic sensibility (namely Richard Crashaw) and wrote poetry for the Catholic counter-Reformation in order to establish a feeling of supremacy and mysticism that would ideally persuade newly emerging Protestant groups back toward Catholicism.
Caroline and Cromwellian literature
The turbulent years of the mid-17th century, ring the reign of Charles I and the subsequent Commonwealth and Protectorate, saw a flourishing of political literature in English. Pamphlets written by sympathisers of every faction in the English civil war ran from vicious personal attacks and polemics, through many forms of propaganda, to high-minded schemes to reform the nation. Of the latter type, Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes would prove to be one of the most important works of British political philosophy. Hobbes's writings are some of the few political works from the era which are still regularly published while John Bramhall, who was Hobbes's chief critic, is largely forgotten. The period also saw a flourishing of news books, the precursors to the British newspaper, with journalists such as Henry Muddiman, Marchamont Needham, and John Birkenhead representing the views and activities of the contending parties. The frequent arrests of authors and the suppression of their works, with the consequence of foreign or underground printing, led to the proposal of a licensing system. The Areopagitica, a political pamphlet by John Milton, was written in opposition to licensing and is regarded as one of the most eloquent defenses of press freedom ever written.
Specifically in the reign of Charles I (1625 – 42), English Renaissance theatre experienced its concluding efflorescence. The last works of Ben Jonson appeared on stage and in print, along with the final generation of major voices in the drama of the age: John Ford, Philip Massinger, James Shirley, and Richard Brome. With the closure of the theatres at the start of the English Civil War in 1642, drama was suppressed for a generation, to resume only in the altered society of the English Restoration in 1660.
Other forms of literature written ring this period are usually ascribed political subtexts, or their authors are grouped along political lines. The cavalier poets, active mainly before the civil war, owed much to the earlier school of metaphysical poets. The forced retirement of royalist officials after the execution of Charles I was a good thing in the case of Izaak Walton, as it gave him time to work on his book The Compleat Angler. Published in , the book, ostensibly a guide to fishing, is much more: a meditation on life, leisure, and contentment. The two most important poets of Oliver Cromwell's England were Andrew Marvell and John Milton, with both procing works praising the new government; such as Marvell's An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell's Return from Ireland. Despite their republican beliefs they escaped punishment upon the Restoration of Charles II, after which Milton wrote some of his greatest poetical works (with any possible political message hidden under allegory). Thomas Browne was another writer of the period; a learned man with an extensive library, he wrote prolifically on science, religion, medicine and the esoteric.
Restoration literature
Main article: Restoration Literature
Restoration literature includes both Paradise Lost and the Earl of Rochester's Sodom, the high spirited sexual comedy of The Country Wife and the moral wisdom of Pilgrim's Progress. It saw Locke's Treatises on Government, the founding of the Royal Society, the experiments of Robert Boyle and the holy meditations of Boyle, the hysterical attacks on theatres from Jeremy Collier, the pioneering of literary criticism from Dryden, and the first newspapers. The official break in literary culture caused by censorship and radically moralist standards under Cromwell's Puritan regime created a gap in literary tradition, allowing a seemingly fresh start for all forms of literature after the Restoration. During the Interregnum, the royalist forces attached to the court of Charles I went into exile with the twenty-year old Charles II. The nobility who travelled with Charles II were therefore lodged for over a decade in the midst of the continent's literary scene. Charles spent his time attending plays in France, and he developed a taste for Spanish plays. Those nobles living in Holland began to learn about mercantile exchange as well as the tolerant, rationalist prose debates that circulated in that officially tolerant nation.
The largest and most important poetic form of the era was satire. In general, publication of satire was done anonymously. There were great dangers in being associated with a satire. On the one hand, defamation law was a wide net, and it was difficult for a satirist to avoid prosecution if he were proven to have written a piece that seemed to criticize a noble. On the other hand, wealthy indivials would respond to satire as often as not by having the suspected poet physically attacked by ruffians. John Dryden was set upon for being merely suspected of having written the Satire on Mankind. A consequence of this anonymity is that a great many poems, some of them of merit, are unpublished and largely unknown.
『叄』 最近有什麼好看的書文學性稍強一點，可以學到知識的那種。
一、哲學類
1．理想國（Republic） 作 者：柏拉圖（Plato）
2．形而上學（Metaphysics） 作 者：亞里士多德 (Aristotle)
3．詩學（On the Art of Poetry） 作 者：亞里士多德 (Aristotle)
4．詩藝（On the Art of Poetry） 作 者：賀拉斯（Horace）
5．論崇高（On the Sublime Longinus） 作 者：朗吉奴斯（Longinus）
6．第一哲學沉思錄（Meditations on First Philosophy）
作者：笛卡爾（Rene Descartes）
7．思想錄（Pascal』s Penssees） 作 者：帕斯卡爾（Blaise Pascal）
8．人性論（A Treatise of Human Nature） 作 者：休謨（David Hume）
9． 純粹理性批判（Critique of Pure Reason） 作 者：康德（Kant）
10．判斷力批判（Critique of Judgment） 作 者：康德（Kant）
11．精神現象學（The Phenomenology of Mind）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：黑格爾（Hegel）
12．小邏輯（The Logic of Hegel） 作 者：黑格爾（Hegel）
13．作為意志和表象的世界（The World as Will and Representation）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：叔本華（Schopenhauer）
14．查拉圖斯特拉如是說（Thus Spake Zarathustra）
作 者：尼采（Friedrich Nietzsche）
15．非此即彼（Either/Or）Vol.1, Vol.2 作 者：克爾凱郭爾（Kierkegaard）
16．普通語言學教程（Course in General Linguistics）
作 者：索緒爾（F.de Saussure）
17．純粹現象學導論（Ideas: General Introction to Pure Phenomenology）
作 者：胡塞爾（Edmund Husserl）
18．邏輯哲學論（Tractatus Logico Philosophicus）(德英對照)
作 者：維特根斯坦（L.Wittgenstein）
19．哲學研究（Philosophical Investigations）(德英對照)
作 者：維特根斯坦（L.Wittgenstein）
20．存在與時間（Being and Time） 作 者：海德格爾（Martin Heidegger）
21．詩·語言·思（Poetry, Language, Thought）
作 者：海德格爾（Martin Heidegger）
22．存在與虛無（Being and Nothingness） 作 者：薩特（Jean-Paul Sartre）
23．真理與方法（Truth and Method） 作 者：伽達默爾（Hans-Georg Gadamer）
24．科學革命的結構（The Structure of Scientific Revolutions）
作 者：庫恩（T.S.Kuhn）
25．性史（The History of Sexuality） 作 者：福柯（M.Foucault）
二、倫理學類(10種，7冊，350元)
1．尼各馬可倫理學（The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle）
作 者：亞里士多德 (Aristotle)
2． 道德情操論（The Theory of Moral Sentiments）
作 者：亞當·斯密（Adam Smith）
3．論人類不平等的起源和基礎（A Discourse on Inequality）
作 者：盧梭（Jean-Jacques.Rousseau）
4． 實踐理性批判（Critique of Practical Reason）
作 者：康德（Kant）
5．道德形而上學基礎（Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals）
作 者：康德（Kant）
6．功利主義（Utilitarianism） 作 者：穆勒（Mill）
7．倫理學原理（Principia Ethica） 作 者：摩爾（G.E.Moore）
8．正義論（A Theory of Justice） 作 者：羅爾斯（John Rawls）
9．無政府、國家與烏托邦（Anarchy, State and Utopia）
作 者：諾齊克（Robert Nozick）
10．追尋美德（After Virtue） 作 者：麥金太爾（Alasdair MacIntyre）
三、宗教學類(10種，11冊，550元)
1．懺悔錄（Confessions） 作 者：聖·奧古斯丁（St.Augustine）
2．托馬斯·阿奎那要籍選（Basic Writings of Saint Thomas Aquinas）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：阿奎那（St.Thomas Aquinas）
3．迷途指津（The Guide for the Perplexed） 作 者：馬蒙尼德（Maimonides）
4．路德基本著作選（Basic Theological Writings）
作 者：馬丁·路德（Martin Luther）
5．論宗教（On Religion） 作 者：施萊爾馬赫（F.D.Schleiermacher）
6．我與你（I and Thou） 作 者：馬丁·布伯（Martin Buber）
7．人的本性及其命運（The Nature and Destiny of Man）
作 者：尼布爾（R.Niebuhr）
8．神聖者的觀念（The Idea of the Holy） 作 者：奧托（Rudolf Otto）
9．存在的勇氣（The Courage to Be） 作 者：梯利希（Paul Tillich）
10．教會教義學（Church Dogmatics） 作 者：卡爾·巴特（Karl Barth）
四、社會學類(5種，6冊，300元)
1．論自殺（Suicide: A Study in Sociology） 作 者：杜克海姆（Emilc Durkheim）
2．新教倫理與資本主義精神（The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism）
作 者：韋伯（Max Weber）
3．貨幣哲學（The Philosophy of Money） 作 者：席美爾（Georg Simmel）
4．一般社會學論集（A Treatise on General Sociology）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：帕累托（Vilfredo Pareto）
5．意識形態與烏托邦（Ideology and Utopia） 作 者：曼海姆（K.Mannheim）
五、人類學類(5種，4冊，200元)
1．金枝（The Golden Bough） 作 者：弗雷澤（James G.Frazer）
2． 西太平洋上的航海者（Argonauts of the Western Pacific）
作 者：馬林諾夫斯基（B.Malinowski）
3． 原始思維（The Savage Mind） 作 者：列維-斯特勞斯（Claude Levi-Strauss）
4． 原始社會的結構和功能（Structure and Function in Primitive Society）
作 者：拉迪克里夫-布郎（Brown）
5．種族、語言、文化（Race, Language and Culture）
作 者：鮑斯（Franz Boas）
六、政治學類(10種，11冊，550元)
1．政治學（The Politics of Aristotle） 作 者：亞里士多德 (Aristotle)
2．君主論（The Prince） 作 者：馬基雅維里（Niccolo Machiavelli）
3．社會契約論（The Social Contract） 作 者：盧梭（Jean-Jacques.Rousseau）
4．利維坦（Leviathan） 作 者：霍布斯（Thomas Hobbes）
5． 政府論（上下篇）（Two Treatises of Government）
作 者：洛克（John Locke）
6．論法的精神（The Spirit of the Laws）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：孟德斯鳩（Montesquieu）
7．論美國民主（Democracy in America）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：托克維爾（Alexis de Tocqueville）
8．代議制政府（Considerations on Representative Government）
作 者：穆勒（Mill）
9．聯邦黨人文集（The Federalist Papers）
作 者：漢密爾頓（Alexander Hamilton）
10．自由秩序原理（The Constitution of Liberty）
作 者：哈耶克（F.A.Hayek）
七、經濟學類(10種，12冊，600元)
1．國民財富的性質和原因的研究（An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：亞當·斯密（Adam Smith）
2．經濟學原理（Principles of Economics）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：馬歇爾（Alfred Marshall）
3．福利經濟學（The Economics of Welfare）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者： 庇古（A.C.Pigou）
4．就業、利息與貨幣的一般理論（The General Theory of Employment Interest and Money）
作 者：凱恩斯（J.M.Keynes）
5．經濟發展理論（The Theory of Economic Development）
作 者：熊彼特（Schumpeter）
6．人類行為（Human Action: A Treatise on Economics）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：米塞斯（Mises）
7．經濟分析的基礎（Foundations of Economic Analysis）
作 者：薩繆爾森（Samuelson）
8．貨幣數量理論研究（Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money）
作 者：弗里德曼（Friedman）
9．集體選擇與社會福利（Collective Choice and Social Welfare）
作 者：阿瑪蒂亞·森（A.K.Sen）
10．資本主義經濟制度（The Economic Institutions of Capitalism）
作 者：威廉姆森（Williamson）
八、心理學類(7種，8冊，400元)
1．心理學原理（The Principles of Psychology）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：威廉·詹姆士（William James）
2．生理心理學原理（Principles of Physiological Psychology）
作 者：馮特（W.Wundt）
3．夢的解析（The Interpretation of Dreams）
作 者：弗洛伊德（Sigmund Freud）
4．兒童智慧的起源（The Origin of Intelligence in the Child）
作 者：皮亞傑（Jean Piaget）
5．科學與人類行為（Science and Human Behavior）
作 者：斯金納（B.F.Skinner）
6．原型與集體無意識（The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious）
作 者：榮格（C.G.Jung）
7． 動機與人格（Motivation and Personality）
作 者：馬斯洛 （A.H.Maslow）
九、法學類(10種，9冊，450元)
1．古代法（Ancient Law） 作 者：梅因（H.Maine）
2．英國法與文藝復興（English Law and the Renaissance）
作 者：梅特蘭（F.W.Maitland）
3．法理學講演錄（Lectures on Jurisprudence）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：奧斯丁（J.Austin）
4．法律的社會學理論（A Sociological Theory of Law）
作 者：盧曼（N.Luhmann）
5．法律社會學之基本原理（Fundamental Principles of the Sociology of Law）
作 者：埃利希（E.Ehrlich）
6．法律、憲法與自由（Law, Legislation and Liberty）
作 者：哈耶克（F.A.Hayek）
7．純粹法學理論（Pure Theory of Law）
作 者：凱爾森（H.Kelsen）
8．法律之概念（The Concept of Law）
作 者：哈特（H.L.A.Hart）
9．法律之帝國（Law』s Empire）
作 者：德沃金（R.Dworkin）
10．法律的經濟學分析（Economic Analysis of Law）
作 者：波斯納（Richard A.Posner）
十、歷史學類(8種，10冊，500元)
1．歷史（The Histories） 作 者：希羅多德（Herodotus）
2．伯羅奔尼撒戰爭史（The Peloponnesian War）作 者：修昔底德（Thucydides）
3．編年史（The Annals of Imperial Rome） 作 者：塔西陀（Tacitus）
4．上帝之城（The City of God）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：聖·奧古斯丁（St.Augustine）
5．歷史學：理論和實踐（History: its Theory and Practice）
作 者：克羅齊（Benedetto Croce）
6．歷史的觀念（The Idea of History） 作 者：柯林伍德（R.G.Collingwood）
7．腓力普二世時代的地中海與地中海世界（The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II）》Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：布羅代爾（F.Braudel）
8．歷史研究（A Study of History）Vol.1, Vol.2
作 者：湯因比（A.J.Toynbee）
『肆』 city與urban有什麼區別
City與urban區別
1、city城市，比town【城鎮】大一些，但小於metropolis【大都會】。
A city is a large and permanent human settlement.
Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town
in general English language meanings, many cities have a particular
administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law.
city城市是法律的定義：是一個較大、永久人類棲居地；根據國家法律，具有行政、司法權利或歷史地位的地方政府。
2、urban是形容詞，指和城市相關的內容，尤其是城市才具有的都市文化。
Urban means "related to cities." It may refer to:
Urban area, geographical area distinct from rural areas；
Urban culture, the culture of towns and cities, sometimes used as a euphemism for African-American culture.
urban和文學、文化相關的詞彙，從地理來說相對於鄉村地區rural areas；從文化上來說，指城市才具有的都市文化。在美國也可以指時尚、陽春白雪式白人文化以暗諷美國黑人文化African-American culture。
以上內容摘自維基網路From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia。
『伍』 求10條有文學色彩的廣告詞和簡短的點評
魅力空間，創意無限。（時尚創意節目廣告詞）
一生追隨，無怨無悔。（企業廣告詞）
自始至衷，有你感動。（「情感」節目廣告詞）
美好滋味，自己體會。（「快餐店」廣告詞）
壯志在心頭，好運伴我走。（「鞋業公司」廣告詞）
自我自主，任你擺步。（「運動鞋」產品廣告詞）
朋友一齊乾杯，知己為我而醉。（酒企業廣告詞）
做廣告錄音還是魅力造音。（魅力造音網廣告詞）
讓快樂張開翅膀，看夢想瞬間綻放。（「夢想中國」節目廣告詞）
品味迎客松，獨領中國風。（「迎客松」香煙廣告詞）
我動故我在。（「運動系列產品」廣告詞）
歲月情，隨「樂」心。（音樂節目廣告詞）
讓快樂張開翅膀，看夢想瞬間綻放。（「夢想中國」節目廣告詞）
品味迎客松，獨領中國風。（「迎客松」香煙廣告詞）
「鑽」心「石」智（鑽石廣告詞）
你的希望，我的可能。（企業廣告詞）
感受陽光，給予希望。（「希望工程」宣傳語）
有酸有甜，有「自」有味。（優酸乳廣告詞）
幸福女人，鑽石人生。（「鑽石」廣告詞）
暢飲杯中往事。（「酒企業」廣告詞）
相同的選擇，不同的期待。（超市，商場廣告詞）
營養作主，我行我素。（「綠色蔬菜」廣告詞）
咀嚼老歌，回味經典。（音樂廣播廣告詞）
把握人生，溝通世界。（手機廣告詞）新歌速遞，快樂知己。（音樂廣播廣告詞）
感受陽光，給予希望。（「希望工程」宣傳語）
有酸有甜，有「自」有味。（優酸乳廣告詞）
幸福女人，鑽石人生。（「鑽石」廣告詞）
暢飲杯中往事。（「酒企業」廣告詞）
相同的選擇，不同的期待。（超市，商場廣告詞）
營養作主，我行我素。（「綠色蔬菜」廣告詞）
咀嚼老歌，回味經典。（音樂廣播廣告詞）
把握人生，溝通世界。（手機廣告詞）新歌速遞，快樂知己。（音樂廣播廣告詞）
時刻准備著，美麗不打折。（女人用品專賣店廣告詞）
魅力空間，創意無限。（時尚創意節目廣告詞）
一生追隨，無怨無悔。（企業廣告詞）
自始至衷，有你感動。（「情感」節目廣告詞）
美好滋，自己體會。（「快餐店」廣告詞）
壯志在心頭，好運伴我走。（「鞋業公司」廣告詞）
自我自主，任你擺步。（「運動鞋」產品廣告詞）
千里始於足，從「心」開始。（鞋業公司廣告詞）
讓快樂張開翅膀，看夢想瞬間綻放。（「夢想中國」節目廣告詞）
品味迎客松，獨領中國風。（「迎客松」香煙廣告詞）
我動故我在。（「運動系列產品」廣告詞）
開啟歡樂時刻，收獲美好時光。（「美好時光食品」廣告詞）
新生活，心滋味。（「房地產公司」廣告詞）
讓你心跳，不如尖叫。（「尖叫」飲料廣告詞）
杯中水，人之味。（礦泉水廣告詞）
關注，關心，關愛。（「希望工程」宣傳語）
因為夢想，所以北京。（「北京2008奧運會」廣告詞）
一聲朋友，天「嘗」地「酒」。（「酒」廣告詞）
等待時光穿梭，共享美好時刻。（「美好時光」食品廣告詞）
最動女人情，最懂女人心。（「女人用品專賣店」廣告詞）
心的渴望，夢的起點。（「職業技術院校」宣傳語）
親近「陽光」，新鮮自然。（「陽光牧場」乳品廣告詞）
色彩女人，繽紛世界。（女性化妝品公司廣告詞）
愛對嘴，要對味。（優酸乳廣告詞）
有夢相隨，永不言退。（企業、公司廣告詞）
五味生活，七彩生命。（照相機膠卷廣告詞）
飄逸留香，絲絲動人。（洗發水廣告詞）
香濃情懷，滴滴忘我。（速溶咖啡飲品廣告詞）
清雅輕便，傾「誠」傾國。（轎車品牌廣告詞）
精彩瞬間，永恆畫面。（照相機廣告詞）
比世界更浪漫，
比誇張更時尚。（時尚服裝品牌廣告詞）
世界看中國，中國有蕪湖。（安徽蕪湖城市宣傳語）
迎客途中，「松」溫舊夢。（「迎客松」香煙廣告詞）
有主張，不誇張。（「服飾」公司廣告詞）
品味牛奶心，感悟草原情。（「牛奶」企業廣告詞）
歲月情，隨「樂」心。（音樂節目廣告詞）
千里始於足，從「心」開始。（鞋業公司廣告詞）
讓快樂張開翅膀，看夢想瞬間綻放。（「夢想中國」節目廣告詞）
有主張，不誇張。（「服飾」公司廣告詞）
品味牛奶心，感悟草原情。（「牛奶」企業廣告詞）
2008最新經典廣告詞國際英語,歡樂無比！
impossibleisnothing(adidas)
沒有不可能！（運動鞋）
NothingcancomeofNothing．
物有其本，事有其源。(莎士比亞)
BuyAustralian,Buyyouajob.
買澳洲貨，給你買份工作．(澳大利亞)
Oneworld,Onedream.(北京奧運會)
1%inspirationisbiggerthan99%perspiration.(Genius)
靈感一閃，勝於勞碌一生。（天才）
Tomorrowisalwaysthebusiestday!
明日復明日，明日何其多，（明天）
,thereislovewithoutmarriage.（Lover）
有姻無愛，就會有愛無姻（情人）
OpinioncoversoverFacts.(Lawyer)
雄辯勝於事實。(律師)
Anythingispossible.
一切皆有可能。------李寧
FatherAndMother,ILoveYou!(family)
爸爸媽媽，我愛你!(家庭)
最新經典廣告詞著名世界的廣告語
Goodtothelastdrop．
滴滴香濃，意猶未盡。（麥斯威爾咖啡）
Obeyyourthirst．
服從你的渴望。（雪碧）
Poetryinmotion，dancingclosetome．
動態的詩，向我舞近。（豐田汽車）
Justdoit.
只管去做。（耐克運動鞋）
Feelthenewspace.
感受新境界。（三星電子）
Intelligenceeverywhere.
智慧演繹，無處不在。（摩托羅拉手機）
Thechoiceofanewgeneration.
新一代的選擇。（百事可樂）
Weintegrate,youcommunicate.
我們集大成，您聯絡世界。（三菱電工）
TakeTOSHIBA,taketheworld.
擁有東芝，擁有世界。（東芝電子）
Nobusinesstoosmall,noproblemtoobig.
沒有不做的小生意，沒有解決不了的大問題。（IBM公司）
JoinWorldenglish，EnjoyEnglishworld.(新世界國際英語)
旅遊地廣告宣傳詞
Hershey, Pennsylvania：The Sweetest Place on Earth地球上最甜的地方
Detroit,Michigan底特律(密西根州)：The Renaissance City再生的城市
Boston,Massachusetts波士頓(麻省)：The Bicentennial City兩百年的城市
Spain西班牙： Everything under the sun陽光下的一切
Newyork紐約： I Love Newyork我愛紐約
Pennsylvania賓西法尼亞： America Starts Here美國從這里開始
Quebec魁北克：It Feels So Different感覺如此不同
Aruba阿魯巴：Our Only Business Is You我們唯一的事情就是為你服務
瑞士：世界的公園，瑞士、瑞士、還是瑞士
夏威夷：夏威夷是微笑的群島，這里陽光燦爛
香港：魅力香港、萬象之都。動感之都
泰國：Amazing Thailand神奇的泰國
新加坡：無限的新加坡，無限的旅遊業；盡情享受，難以忘懷；新亞洲-新加坡新感覺
澳大利亞：令人心曠神怡的澳大利亞
佛羅里達州：佛羅里達，與眾不同
賓夕法尼亞州：美國從這里開始
香港：魅力香港，萬象之都；動感之都；我們是香港
上海：新上海、新感受
桂林：桂林山水甲天下
蘇州、杭州：上有天堂、下有蘇杭
宋城：給我一天，還你千年
美國好萊塢宇宙城公園：讓遊人進入侏羅紀時代
『陸』 英國文學中的，怎麼翻譯
大地再沒有比這兒更美的風貌
旭日金揮灑布於峽谷山陵，
也不比這片晨光更為奇麗；
全文是：
Earth has not anything to show more fair:
Dull would he be of soul who could pass by
A sight so touching in its majesty:
This City now doth, like a garment, wear
The beauty of the morning; silent, bare,
Ships, towers, domes, theatres, and temples lie
Open unto the fields, and to the sky;
All bright and glittering in the smokeless air.
Never did sun more beautifully steep
In his first splendour, valley, rock, or hill;
Ne'er saw I, never felt, a calm so deep!
The river glideth at his own sweet will:
Dear God! the very houses seem asleep;
And all that mighty heart is lying still!
威斯敏斯特橋上
大地再沒有比這兒更美的風貌：
若有誰，對如此壯麗動人的景物
竟無動於衷，那才是靈魂麻木；
瞧這座城市，像披上一領新袍，
披上了明艷的晨光；環顧周遭：
船舶，尖塔，劇院，教堂，華屋，
都寂然、坦然，向郊野、向天穹赤露，
在煙塵未染的大氣里粲然閃耀。
旭日金揮灑布於峽谷山陵，
也不比這片晨光更為奇麗；
我何嘗見過、感受過這深沉的寧靜！
河上徐流，由著自己的心意；
上帝呵！千門萬戶都沉睡未醒，
這整個宏大的心臟仍然在歇息！
（楊德豫譯）
參考資料：中國書網
『柒』 文學之都的諾利奇
英國的城市裡，諾利奇（Norwich）的國際知名度並不十分高，但聯合國教科文組織（UNESCO）的一專項決定可能改變這屬一狀況。
UNESCO發現這個英格蘭中部城鎮歷史文化遺產豐厚，而其中最寶貴的是那裡深厚的文學積淀。於是，諾利奇被命名為「世界文學城市」（City of Literature），成為英格蘭第一個、全球第六個獲此殊榮的城市。
諾利奇作家中心（WCN）說，諾利奇對此殊榮受之無愧、當仁不讓。兩項歷史第一可以說明問題：世界上已知第一部女性撰寫的英語書籍在諾利奇出版，第一份地方報紙也是在諾利奇出版發行。
向聯合國教科文組織遞交申請，為諾利奇爭取「文學之都」榮譽的正是WCN。
除了文學領域的歷史積淀深厚，諾利奇的文學傳統得到很好的保留和發揚，也是它可引以為傲的資本。
