歐洲文化入門論文題目

㈣ 歐洲文化入門 論文2000字（英文）

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摘要 基督教被羅馬統治者宣布為國教，標志著一神教思想終於為異教社會所接受，受到廣大民眾到統治者的普遍尊重。按理同為一神教的猶太教的地位也應有所改善，因為畢竟猶太教是孕育基督教的「母親宗教」，畢竟基督教神學思想的大部分內容直接來自猶太教。然而事實卻恰好相反，坐到國教交椅上的基督教竟與羅馬統治者聯手，開始了對自己「母親」的一系列迫害。

關鍵詞 基督教 猶太教

從公元前二世紀至公元一世紀，散居在巴勒斯坦以外的猶太人以亞歷山大為中心，他們與希臘思想的長期接觸，勢必使猶太教信仰與希臘文化環境相適應，以希臘思想來闡述猶太教思想。這種希臘化的猶太教思想，從公元前二世紀中葉到公元一世紀中葉的200年間，在當時經濟、文化最發達，思想交流最活躍的亞歷山大猶太人中廣泛流行。這種思想突破了民族的界限，使它便於為其他民族所接受，為後來基督教在羅馬帝國的傳播准備了土壤。基督教正是在繼承和發展猶太教的過程中結合希臘哲學思想而逐漸形成的。

根據《新約》的記載，早期發展基督教的大多是希臘化了的猶太人。在傳教初期，猶太教聖經仍然是他們依據的主要經典。也因此基督教從猶太教思想中繼承了許多積極的內容，如人與人之間要有愛心，要彼此相愛等等。

基督教與猶太教雖然同源，但是兩教在教義、禮節和生活實踐方面也存在著許多重要的分歧和差別。事實上，基督教從非法走向合法的過程中，與「母親宗教」猶太教之間的矛盾愈來愈尖銳。

長期以來，由於猶太教和基督教信仰一神教，反對偶像崇拜，因此同樣受到羅馬統治者的歧視和迫害。早期基督教的信徒主要成分是勞苦大眾，反對羅馬帝國尤其激烈，所受的打擊也愈嚴重。但是公元二世紀後，許多富人加入了基督教，並逐漸奪取了教會的領導權，使基督教發生了性質上的改變。教會開始奉行溫和路線，把耶穌描述成卑微恭順、逆來順受的代表，極力宣傳不抵抗主義。羅馬統治者看到基督教已經失去反抗性，再也不會對其統治造成威脅，於是也改變了對基督教的態度。公元三九二年，羅馬統治者宣布基督教為國教，同時下令禁止異教信仰，羅馬皇帝君士坦丁也皈依了基督教。這樣基督教一躍而成為統治者的寵兒，迅速發展為全歐洲、乃至世界性的宗教。而猶太教此後仍局限於在猶太人中發展。

基督教被羅馬統治者宣布為國教，標志著一神教思想終於為異教社會所接受，受到廣大民眾到統治者的普遍尊重。按理同為一神教的猶太教的地位也應有所改善，因為畢竟猶太教是孕育基督教的「母親宗教」，畢竟基督教神學思想的大部分內容直接來自猶太教。然而事實卻恰好相反，為了爭取更多的猶太人脫離猶太教，改奉基督教，同時也為了討好羅馬統治者，坐到國教交椅上的基督教便竭力詆毀和攻擊猶太教，為大肆迫害猶太教製造輿論。基督教甚至與羅馬統治者聯手，開始了對自己「母親」的一系列迫害。

基督教創始人為了淡化猶太教對基督教的影響，首先就把猶太人的《聖經》稱為《舊約》，而將基督教添加部分稱為《新約》。其言下之意是，上帝與猶太人訂約的事已成過去，現在上帝已同基督徒訂立新約。就這樣，基督教創始人在肯定猶太人《聖經》的同時又否定了它，在應用它的同時又取代它。他們通過宣揚舊的契約實際上已被新的契約所代替，而證明上帝已經唾棄了過去認定的選民猶太人，而把他對人類的愛轉向了基督徒。《聖經新約》是耶穌死後百年，由基督教會編寫的經典，集中地記載了基督教對猶太教的種種詆毀與攻擊。

當時基督教對猶太教發出的眾多指責中，影響最為深遠、攻擊最為惡毒的為指責猶太人是殺害耶穌的兇手。這是《新約》中反猶言論的最核心部分，成為日後基督徒仇恨猶太人的最主要原因。《新約》中的四大福音書大體上是這樣說的：耶穌原為猶太教徒，但不按照猶太教的傳統佈道，他修正摩西戒律，甚至向人們宣傳他具有顯示神跡的能力。因此招致正統猶太人的不滿和嫉恨。這一年逾越節的前夕，他按照古代先知預言過的方式，騎驢進入聖城耶路撒冷。入城後，他潔凈了聖殿，並在殿中宣講福音。由於叛徒猶大的出賣，耶穌就被猶太祭司捉拿，押往猶太教公會受審，受審期間，耶穌不僅遭受侮辱，還被毒打。為了置耶穌於死地，猶太祭司和長老把他捆起來交給當地羅馬總督彼拉多處置。彼拉多本想釋放耶穌，卻遭到猶太人的堅決反對。不得已，彼拉多下令判處耶穌死刑。這一點，經過史學家、神學家和猶太教專家對史料典籍的深入研究發現，《新約》中有關耶穌被害經過的記載與事實不符，完全是歪曲和編造。

總而言之，由於古代猶太教內部的分裂，從猶太教中產生了早期的基督教，早期基督教徒繼承了猶太教聖經以及所包含的某些思想。也正是因為在這些淵源關系中有許多的差異，使猶太教和基督教長期爭論不休，以至逐漸釀成根深蒂固的宗教仇恨、民族成見，並發生過基督徒對猶太人的殘酷迫害和屠殺。一些西方歷史學家認為，基督教精神是西方文化的主要因素之一。實際上，基督教思想、組織和禮儀活動都以猶太教為其原型而加以發展。不少西方歷史家稱西方文化為「猶太——基督教文化」，這不是沒有原因的。然而，在希臘文化的影響下，基督教在一定程度上又超越了猶太教思想，對中世紀及近現代西方的價值觀、倫理道德觀產生了深遠的影響。

㈥ 歐洲文化入門 論文（英文）

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Abstract:
America』s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America』s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized indivialism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But e to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
Keywords: National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature
摘要： 從殖民地時期起，歐洲殖民者和清教徒翻開了美國文學史的第一頁。 這往後很長一段時期， 美國文學一直都受到歐洲文化的很大 影響 。一直到美國獨立後，美國人強烈地感覺到了民族文學的需要，美國的民族文學開始 發展 。 南北戰爭是美國文學史上一個分水嶺， 戰後美國文學進入了一個全盛時期，產生了強調個性主義和直覺的早期浪漫主義，和以愛默生為代表的超驗主義文學。愛默生的 時代 是美國前所未有的文學變動時代，產生了一大批優秀的作家和作品。 他們突出地給予了當時美國文學以深度和力量，也促進了羅曼主義高潮的來臨。但是由於戰爭的影響， 社會 動盪不安，這時的作品更注重於揭示社會的陰暗面， 同時美國的民族文學進一步發展，創作出許多帶有本土色彩和批判現實主義的作品。 一戰後，美國人陷入戰後的茫然， 美國也開始進入了 現代 文學階段。
關鍵詞： 民族文學， 浪漫主義， 超驗主義， 本土色彩， 現實主義， 現代文學
American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.
The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.
America』s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America』s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized indivialism and intuition，and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But e to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
1. Colonial and early American literature
(1). Travelers and Explorers
When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, 「The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,」 (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith』s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).
Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It』s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.
(2) Pilgrim settlements
Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However , because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. 「It』s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.」 (W. P. Trent, 1997)
The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn』t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That』s way Wu Dingbo said in his book 「Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism」 and 「The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.」 (Wu Dingbo, 4)
Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.
People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.
One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.
2. 18th century—the Age of reason
(1) The Age of reason
In the 18th century, people believed in man』s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.
Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.
Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It』s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, 「He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. 」 (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.
And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.
During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.
(2) Early National Literature
During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.
The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real 」American「.

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㈦ 歐洲文化入門的大綱 或者目錄 題目是 古希臘羅馬文化（或文學） 謝謝

古代文學
課程內容
一、古希臘文學
二、古羅馬文學
三、早期基督教文學
考核要求與考核知識點
1,、識記：古希臘、羅馬文學是歐洲文化和文學的發源地。古羅馬文學的分期及主要代表作家作品。古希臘文學的三個分期及代表作家作品。第一部文人史詩《埃涅阿斯記》。
2,、理解：古希臘羅馬文學和早期基督教文學是歐洲文學的兩大源頭。古羅馬文學是古希臘和後世歐洲文學之間的橋梁。「伊索寓言」；《埃涅阿斯記》的思想內容及藝術特色。
3、應用:古希臘文學的特徵。

第二節 古希臘神話
課程內容
一希臘神話內容
二希臘神話特點
三希臘神話影響
考核要求與考核知識點
1 識記：奧林波斯神系。英雄傳說
2理解：希臘神話的內容和藝術價值
3應用：希臘神話的特點

第三節 荷馬史詩
課程內容
一荷馬史詩內容
二荷馬史詩藝術成就
考核要求與知識點
1識記：《伊利昂記》的主要英雄任務。《奧德修記》的主人公。
2理解：荷馬史詩
3應用：荷馬史詩的思想內容和藝術成就

第四季 古希臘戲劇
課程內容
一古希臘悲劇
二古希臘喜劇

考核要求與知識點
1識記：古希臘三大悲劇作家和喜劇作家及其代表作品。
2理解：古希臘戲劇中的命運觀念和人本思想。三大悲劇詩人對希臘悲劇的發展做出的重要貢獻。

以上是從《外國文學史》課後大綱照著打下來的，希望對你有所幫助

㈧ 急急急！！！關於歐洲文化入門的論文，3000字。發我郵箱[email protected].

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㈨ 200分急求一篇歐洲文化入門論文（英語）

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